Magyar Pszichológiai Társaság
PO Box 220
H-1536 Budapest
Hungary
Tel. +3613426178
Fax +3613500555 (ask for 138)
Website: www.mpt.hu
***
PSYCHOLOGY IN HUNGARY
Psychology in Hungary has a long tradition both as a scientific enterprise and as a profession, although it has gone through painful historical times. The roots of Hungarian psychology can be found in the progressive intellectual movement around the turn of the century. Experimental psychology began with the work of Paul Ranschburg, who excelled as an experimental psychologist and as a founder of the first psychological laboratory in Hungary, which was established in 1926, and a founder of the child counselling movement in Hungary. The early involvement of Hungarian psychologists in the psychoanalytic movement dates from the same period. Between the two World Wars, development of psychology was gradual but slow and not well received officially. Political and racial discrimination was present that resulted in the emigration of many psychoanalysts and academics, such as Geza Revesz, who became world renown, but especially in the Netherlands. The list of Hungarian psychoanalysts who achieved international fame is rather long: Sandor Ferenczi, Geza Roheim, Franz Alexander, David Rapaport, Imre Hermann.
After World War II, psychology representing a natural ally of progressive social and educational movements flourished for a few years. This intellectually varied and open period was followed by a politically forced reduction of psychological activities and by an intellectually narrow-minded Pavlovianisation of psychology during the Stalinist period. Since the early 1960s psychology gradually became increasingly recognised as a science and as a profession. Regular training was re-established, research activity and international connections reactivated, different institutions and professional organisations formed. As a result of this discontinuous history, psychology is treated as a rather young and ambitious area in Hungary.
Experimental psychology became one of the leading fields of psychological research in Hungary, led by internationally recognised scholars.
The traditions of experimental and general psychology were based on the work of the late Lajos Kardos (1899-1985) who was a creative researcher and lecturer and a long-time doyen of Hungarian psychology. In his experimental work he dealt with the issue of animal memory and its structural differences as compared to human memory.
In the area of psychophysiology different aspects of various cognitive phenomena were studied. The late Endre Grastyan (1924-1988) of the Medical School in Pecs, based on his research data on mechanisms of conditioning and reinforcement in animals, developed a cognitive theory of elementary learning phenomena.
In the field of applied psychology, a very original theory in developmental psychology had a big impetus on many related fields. This theory was one of the numerous works of the late Ferenc Merei (1909-1986), who is considered to be one of the important figures of contemporary Hungarian psychology. He had significant contributions in the fields of social, developmental and clinical psychology, as well.
Psychologists in Hungary are trained at three universities: the Eotvos Lorand University in Budapest, the Lajos Kossuth University in Debrecen and the Janus Pannonius University in Pecs. They offer a 5-year comprehensive graduate programme. About 500 students are enrolled in the regular program annually. The 5-year programme leads to an MA degree in psychology. Basic training is supplemented by PhD programmes and by postgraduate courses in four applied areas: clinical and mental health, work and organisational psychology, educational psychology and counselling. Three institutions are responsible for the postgraduate training: the Imre Haynal University of Health Sciences, the Technical University of Budapest and the Eotvos Lorand University in Budapest.
Roughly 1,800 people are employed as full-time psychologists. There is a growing interest in psychology as a profession, though the number of students in training is still limited. Due to historical events having a major impact on the development of Hungarian psychology, there is a middle-aged generation in leading roles in the various institutions. However, the number of young psychologists trained according to the state of the art of the profession is growing. This new generation of future professionals has already overcome the language barrier that has been an obstacle in the integration of the region for a long time.
THE CURRENT STATUS OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY IN HUNGARY
I. Clinical and Mental Hygiene Psychology
Clinical psychology has the most deeply rooted traditions within the field of applied psychology in Hungary. The 800 clinical psychologists employed in Hungary are responsible for performing diagnostic, therapeutic and mental hygiene tasks. A diploma of professional clinical and mental hygiene psychology is awarded upon successfully completing the 5-semester postgraduate course offered by the Psychology Department of the Imre Haynal University of Health Sciences. This diploma is the condition of being employed as an independent, unsuper-vised clinical psychologist. At present about 30-35 psychologists receive their clinical and mental hygiene professional psychologist diploma annually and find employment in this field. The professional policy issues of clinical psychology are in the care of the Professional Clinical Psychology Board, which is an advisory body of the Minister for Welfare. The difficulties caused in the field by the change in the economic and political system are decreasing, but due to the modest finances of public health the development of an adequate network of services is still lagging behind.
For historical reasons clinical psychology has close ties to psychiatry. Medical doctors and psychologists developed the profession in a united effort. Professional clinical psychologists and medical doctors jointly participate in the mixed training groups for psychotherapeutic postgraduate training. Altogether 200 clinical psychologists and 200 doctors have received the title of psychotherapist up to this point in time. It is characteristic of Hungary that psychotherapeutic training is organised according to method-specific approaches by the different professional groups. The Psychotherapy Council has accredited the following methods: psychoanalysis; cognitive and behavioural therapy; client-centred psychotherapy; relaxation and symbol therapy; hypnotherapy; analytic psychology; individual psychology; family therapy; psychodrama; group analysis; child psychotherapy. The different schools of psychotherapy have formed societies (e.g. Sandor Ferenczy Society, Psycho-analytically Oriented Training Society, Hungarian Psychodrama Society, Hungarian Group Psychoanalytic Society, etc.) all of which have good working connections with European and international organisations of similar profiles. This way these societies are an integral part of and play a role in the development of this professional field. The Psychotherapy Council is a member of its relevant international organisation, The European Association of Psychotherapy. The practice within the field of psychotherapy in Hungary plays a model role for many Western European countries regarding the system of accreditation and the equivalency between medical doctor and psychologist. The sections dealing with clinical psychology of the new law on health is up to European standards. The "Integrated Psychiatric Services" being currently developed provides an evergrowing professional opportunity for psychology in the field of mental hygiene and primary prevention. The following areas will be major challenges to the profession at the turn of the century: increasing drug abuse; the adverse effects of computer sciences and video; the manipulative effects of mass media; family crises.
2. Health Psychology
Health psychology with its bio-psycho-social viewpoint of life events is still looking for its place within the Hungarian public health system, which is still bio-medical in its approach. There is a professional preparation course within psychology training under the supervision of the Department of Personality and Health Psychology of the Eotvos Lorand University of Budapest. The Department has close working relationship and has a joint research project with the Institute of Behavioural Sciences at the Semmelweis University of Medicine and other, foreign universities (Orebro University Sweden; Tilburg University, Netherlands). The viewpoint of health psychology surfaces mainly in the work of different self-help groups of the chronically ill, and in operation of different health psychology funds and the National Institute for the Protection of Public Health (NEVI) which deals with primary prevention on a national level.
Disturbing statistical data regarding mortality rate and the high-risk indices of middle-aged men make it timely to apply the new, fresh outlook of health psychology on life-events. The number of psychologists participating in mainly government funded interdisciplinary health promotion projects is growing.
One of the most dynamically growing branches within health psychology is psychosomatic medicine in gynaecology and obstetrics, which has given great impetus to the so-called "family-centred child-birth" (including preparation for giving birth, husband's presence at childbirth, the promotion of mother-child relationship and promotion of breast-feeding, etc.). The UNICEF awarded the first "Baby Friendly Hospital" title within Europe to a Hungarian hospital (DOTE Gynaecological Clinic). The WHO Collaborating Centre for Maternal and Child Health and Family Planning operates at this clinic, as well, where 50 professionals participate in English language postgraduate training annually. An important part of this training deals with pressing for a more psychological and psychosomatic viewpoint within the every-day practice of obstetrics and gynaecology. The Hungarian Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology Society was established in 1992 with 200 members, which has 20 psychologists within its ranks. This Society is the only of its kind in Central and Eastern Europe and has ties to its international partner organisation, the International Society of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology - ISPOG. Thus, the Hungarian Society is in a position to create links within the region and foster relations among the neighbouring countries and the more developed part of the world. One of the events underlining this role is the fact that the ISPOG Conference will be held in Hungary in 2002.
3. Work- and Organisational Psychology
The other field of applied psychology, which can boast with long-standing traditions in Hungary is work-psychology, with main traditional applied fields in transport, industry and agriculture. This professional field became institutionalised in the 1970s. By the middle of the 1980s the number of work-psychology and ergonomic laboratories were established within different companies, sector organisational and development institutes enumerated nearly 100. After the change of the economic system and as a result of the gradual establishment of market-economy the professional orientation and institutional structure of this professional field changed dramatically. Alongside the traditional fields of work psychology, a very dynamic development characterises organisational and management/personnel psychology - primarily within privately owned consultation services and firms. The tensions in the labour market which accompany the establishment of the market-economy and the ensuing unemployment served as a basis for new forms of joint functioning of work and counselling psychology and a new institution system. The traditional fields of work psychology are expanding and the rigid boundaries in professional competence between fields seem to be becoming more relaxed and the cooperation among different fields is becoming stronger. A newly emerging field that requires the integration of different psychological competencies is applied psychology at the armed forces (licensing for carrying arms, the selection of personnel, organisational development, mental hygiene, etc.). Another important topic, where significant research capacities are concentrated in borderland fields is the psychological and ergonomic (mainly cognitive-ergonomic) effects of the wide-scale introduction of information technologies and the organisational and organisation psychological problems resulting from this in Hungary. One of the outstanding and internationally recognised professional workshops within the field is the Department of Ergonomics and Psychology at the Technical University of Budapest (BME). The Department has played a central role in the past decade in the development of efficiently functioning, internationally co-operating (Technical University of Delft and Technical University of Berlin) interdisciplinary research and developmental groups. On the basis of these experiences the above Department hosted the 6"' Conference of the European Association of Cognitive Ergonomics - ECCE in 1992. In 1997 the Department organised the "3"' European Graduate Summer School on New Information Technology and Work Psychology" for the young professionals in the field, which served as a postgraduate training, as well as the development of a research network.
Organisation development is the most dynamically developing part of organisational psychology. About one-third of the members of the Hungarian Society of Organisation Development are psychologists (total membership 100-120 persons). These professionals are well versed in handling processes from an individual point of view (career counselling within the work setting, leadership counselling), through group-level (education, training, team-building), up to organisation-level processes (process counselling).
Organisational psychology is the main field that provides a framework for research on decision-making processes, which have an established tradition in Hungary. Professionals participating in the research range from psychologists and economists to engineers and sociologists. International recognition was given to the workshop by the fact, that one of the most highly acclaimed professional forum of decision making psychology (Subjective Probability, Utility and Decision Making - SPUDM) held its conference in Budapest in 1981. Researchers in Hungary did not remain unaffected by practical issues. During the years of change different social problems were scientifically analysed by them. Different courses offered at universities in this field may primarily rely on professional traditions and professional expertise present in Hungary.
The Department of Ergonomics and Psychology of the Technical University of Budapest is in charge of the postgraduate training of work- and organisational psychologists and has endeavoured to meet the changing demands of the past decade with high-standard training. The Psychology Institute of the Lajos Kossuth University of Debrecen is a partner in this postgraduate course, which trains 15-25 professional work and organisational psychologists annually.
The number of psychologists employed in the field of work and organisational psychology is about 300-350 psychologists, half of which have already earned a specialised postgraduate diploma in this field. The tasks regarding business federation and development of the field are provided for by an inter-departmental body, the Hungarian Co-ordination Council for Work Psychology (MLKT), which is the advisory body to the Minister of Labour. This applied field has good international relations to the European Association of Work- and Organisational Psychology - EAWOP and the European Network of Work- and Organisational Psychology - ENOP. Hungary hosted the 7th EAWOP Conference. The Hungarian Society of Organisation Development hosted and organised the 12nd International Conference of the International Organisation Development Association in 1997.
4. School Psychology
School psychology was established at a national level in Hungary ten years ago. There are about 100 school psychologists employed within the public education system. The majority of these have earned a specialising postgraduate diploma in educational psychology at the Department of Social- and Educational Psychology of the Eotvos Lorand University, which is currently in charge of educational psychology postgraduate courses at a national level. This number means that currently the school psychologist/student ratio is 1/11,000, which falls considerably short of the UNESCO recommendation of 1/7,000.
School psychology in Hungary is in a very favourable position in comparison to colleagues' world-wide if the tasks and functions of school psychologists are taken into account. School psychologists in Hungary do not have to face the pressures of selection processes involved in schooling, as most of their colleagues abroad have to, as there are special committees functioning for this purpose. As a consequence much more time can be allotted to primary prevention and consultative services, which are in the forefront of international developmental trends within this applied field.
The demand for school psychologist is dynamically growing. This is fuelled not only by national trends whereby applied psychology is becoming an increasingly important factor, but by the current new legislation concerning public education. The most important are: 1996 - Law on Public Education, which acknowledges the presence of school psychologists in educational institutions and sets the requirements of employment at a postgraduate specialisation level; 1997 - the Law on Child-Welfare; 1998 - Law on the Equal Chances for the Disabled. As a result of the above legislation new national graduate and postgraduate teacher training courses and continuing education courses are being organised, which increase the role of educational and school psychology within the field of education. Poor resources and financing, characteristic of public education, has an unfavourable effect on this applied field and can be said to be one of the main obstacles in furthering the development and services provided in and by this applied field.
A special feature of school psychology in Hungary is related to the long-standing tradition of kindergarten services. Hungary can boast with one of the most well developed kindergarten care system in Europe. It is no surprise therefore, that a number of school psychologists are in fact employed by kindergartens. Their work emphasises early development and primary prevention strategies.
The following themes have come to the forefront of this applied field: early development and its environmental factors, at risk children, screening for learning disabilities, helping and coping strategies, consultation techniques at different levels of intervention, teaching-learning strategies and styles, socio-cognitive approaches, maladaptive behaviour, alternative forms of education. Current developments in legislation have brought organisational psychology and issues pertaining to the integration of children with special needs into the limelight. The School Psychology Methods base that was established at the Department of Social and Educational Psychology, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest has greatly enhanced professional work in this field. It also plays a leading role in training other helping professionals working in educational settings e.g. resource teachers.
Recognising the importance of co-operation among educational psychology and different fields of special education, the profession has taken major steps in dealing with issues requiring an integrated approach. In accordance with international trends, territories like intensive development in case of brain immaturity and/or brain damaged children, diagnosing special needs of children have become areas of co-operation. As a result holistic approaches are emphasised, the diagnostic and conceptual framework is becoming more unified. Still, much remains to be done regarding the systematic development of empirically sound methods, instruments, testing and screening procedures.
The School Psychology Section of the Hungarian Psychological Association and the School Psychology Methods Base jointly play a leading role in the continuing education of school psychologists. The School Psychology Section of the Hungarian Psychological Association and the Hungarian School Psychology Association (HSPA) have active relations with the International School Psychology Association (ISPA). HSPA and ISPA have successfully worked on joint international projects: international survey of school psychology practice and preparation, children's rights and their manifestation, international postgraduate training programme for professionals from ex-Eastern Block countries. Recognising the mediator role of the Hungarian association in the region and the major developments in the applied field the Hungarian School Psychology Association was the co-convenor of the 18"' ISPA Colloquium in 1996 and the re-elected secretary of ISPA is a Hungarian school psychologist.
5. Counselling
Counselling is one of the most dynamically growing fields of applied psychology. There are newer and newer activities and institution systems all requiring well-trained counselling professionals. Apart from the well established vocational and educational guidance services, new emerging trends are: higher-education counselling, labour counselling, family counselling, crises counselling, rehabilitation counselling and the newest is addiction counselling.
The activities previously performed nearly exclusively by psychologists has given impetus to the development of new professions in all the above mentioned spheres. A graduate level counselling profession has developed, which after joint theoretical and methodological basic training, fans out to different specialisations, according to the task. In the labour division within counselling the psychologist plays an important role, but is by no means the only professional. Counselling means a special approach to a problem, where psychological preparation is needed in the resolution of the problem at hand. A medical doctor, a lawyer or a teacher may play a similarly important role in the teamwork. In most of the above-mentioned spheres, counselling professionals do the majority of the work and their numbers are the highest within the field. International developmental trends in counselling are similar to the above, and the development of Hungarian counselling psychology is in accordance with this.
The methodological culture developed in the 1970s has been enriched with many new elements and on the basis of recent international experiences the development or "restructuring" of the vocational guidance system has started in order to adapt to the requirements of the 90s.
The most notable professional workshop of counselling psychology is at the Department of Career Socialisation and Work at the Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest. The Department organised the "Counselling and Unemployment" Conference of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance in 1993 in Budapest, which was a professional event of outstanding importance from the viewpoint of the developing labour-market psychology institutions operating in this region. The postgraduate training of career and work psychologists began in 1994 under the auspices of the above Department of the Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest. An important further opportunity to be taken up in the development of the counselling system is the training and further education of professionals working in the field of work- and career counselling, including those counselling teachers working within the public education system.
6. Sport psychology
The political and economic changes had drastic effects on this field. As a result of social changes the whole institution system and financing structure of the sport-world has changed. Sports - which have traditionally always played an important part in Hungarian culture -, underwent a painful restructuring process, which is drawing to its close at present.
Currently eighteen psychologists are employed in this field of applied psychology. Their main responsibility is to utilise screening procedures and to regularly prepare sportsmen for important events. Although their numbers are small, the work of sport psychologists is now being recognised as an important factor in success more and more by the newly restructured national associations within the different branches of sport. One of the great challenges of the future is to create and regulate the training of sport psychologists.
7. Transport Psychology
There are 30 professional psychologists employed in this applied field at present in Hungary, but in accordance with ever-growing motorization the demand for professionals is increasing, as well. The main fields of activities:
Transport psychologists perform the vocational aptitude testing of about 15,000 professional drivers annually in well equipped laboratories.
Transport/traffic education of about 9000 persons annually within the framework of a rehabilitation programme aimed at repeated offenders and drunken drivers
on the one hand, and at elementary school students, on the other.
Transport psychologists have a well-functioning working relationship with international organisations. The Deputy President of the European Association of Transport Psychologists is a Hungarian psychologist. Hungarian transport psychology plays a model role in Europe regarding the postgraduate training of psychologists within the field.
8. Criminal- and Forensic Psychology
The number of psychologists employed in the field of criminal and forensic psychology varies between 40 and 50 in Hungary. These professionals are mainly employed by penal authorities, by county level police stations and by the capital. As a consequence of increasing crime-rates, especially the number of violent crimes and antisocial behaviour - which can be distinctly observed among youth -, the demand for psychologists within law enforcement, prisons and juvenile homes greatly overrides the number presently employed. A number of psychologists are involved in forensic psychology, but the professional preparation of psychologists in this field is problem to be resolved. Although criminal psychology as a course, is offered as a part of professional training at graduate level at universities and colleges, but specialised training has not yet been established in this field.
9. Political Psychology
Although this applied field of psychology is not well developed, but as a result of recent economic, social and political transformations a growing social demand can be observed for its development. Graduate level training is offered in this field by the Sociology and Social Political Institute and the Department of Social- and Educational Psychology at Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), Budapest. It is also offered in courses at undergraduate and at postgraduate levels, as well as in a PhD programme. The joint Department Research Group of Communication Sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Eotvos Lorand University is functioning as a part of the above mentioned Department of ELTE. This Research group has the longest standing tradition in the field of public thinking and opinion polling in Hungary. This research group not only conducts research projects, but also plays an important role in the training of political psychologists, as well.
10. Economic Psychology
Research employing an interdisciplinary viewpoint of economy and psychology has come to the forefront only in the past few years in accordance with the gradual development of market economy in Hungary. In recent years, consumer behaviour, advertisement psychology, marketing and public relations have all become important fields in applied psychology and is one of the major spheres of employment of psychologists. The main professional workshops of interdisciplinary economic psychology in Hungary are at the University of Economics, Budapest and the Technical University of Budapest, at the Attila Jozsef University at Szeged and at the Lajos Kossuth University at Debrecen. Courses of this kind are offered at the Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest and at the Technical University of Budapest as a part of undergraduate psychology training, as well as a part of post-graduate training courses.
11. Environmental psychology
Environmental psychology is gaining ground in Hungary. Research in this field is only conducted at the Department for Experimental Psychology at Eotvos Lorand University at the present, although environmental sciences dealing with similar topics, such as ergonomics, environmental economy, security sciences, urban studies, etc., have a long-standing tradition in Hungary. This field of applied psychology - the same as all other interdisciplinary fields which have close ties to the applied sphere - will become a dynamically developing applied psychological science in the next decade, which according to political intentions, will be the decade of joining forces with the developed Western world.
12. Other fields
Cultural comparative psychology research: The situation of non-Hungarians nationals and foreigners in Hungary - the psychology of relating to the original and the accommodating (Hungarian) culture.
Psychological research regarding gender issues: psychological research regarding gender role, gender-stereotyping and related issues.
The psychology of ageing: Research in gerontology and psychological research on ageing.
Mathematical modelling in psychology.
Computer-aided psycho-diagnostics.
Psychodrama - play-back.
© Hungarian Psychological Association
En PJ, le Code d'éthique
PO Box 220
H-1536 Budapest
Hungary
Tel. +3613426178
Fax +3613500555 (ask for 138)
Website: www.mpt.hu
***
PSYCHOLOGY IN HUNGARY
Psychology in Hungary has a long tradition both as a scientific enterprise and as a profession, although it has gone through painful historical times. The roots of Hungarian psychology can be found in the progressive intellectual movement around the turn of the century. Experimental psychology began with the work of Paul Ranschburg, who excelled as an experimental psychologist and as a founder of the first psychological laboratory in Hungary, which was established in 1926, and a founder of the child counselling movement in Hungary. The early involvement of Hungarian psychologists in the psychoanalytic movement dates from the same period. Between the two World Wars, development of psychology was gradual but slow and not well received officially. Political and racial discrimination was present that resulted in the emigration of many psychoanalysts and academics, such as Geza Revesz, who became world renown, but especially in the Netherlands. The list of Hungarian psychoanalysts who achieved international fame is rather long: Sandor Ferenczi, Geza Roheim, Franz Alexander, David Rapaport, Imre Hermann.
After World War II, psychology representing a natural ally of progressive social and educational movements flourished for a few years. This intellectually varied and open period was followed by a politically forced reduction of psychological activities and by an intellectually narrow-minded Pavlovianisation of psychology during the Stalinist period. Since the early 1960s psychology gradually became increasingly recognised as a science and as a profession. Regular training was re-established, research activity and international connections reactivated, different institutions and professional organisations formed. As a result of this discontinuous history, psychology is treated as a rather young and ambitious area in Hungary.
Experimental psychology became one of the leading fields of psychological research in Hungary, led by internationally recognised scholars.
The traditions of experimental and general psychology were based on the work of the late Lajos Kardos (1899-1985) who was a creative researcher and lecturer and a long-time doyen of Hungarian psychology. In his experimental work he dealt with the issue of animal memory and its structural differences as compared to human memory.
In the area of psychophysiology different aspects of various cognitive phenomena were studied. The late Endre Grastyan (1924-1988) of the Medical School in Pecs, based on his research data on mechanisms of conditioning and reinforcement in animals, developed a cognitive theory of elementary learning phenomena.
In the field of applied psychology, a very original theory in developmental psychology had a big impetus on many related fields. This theory was one of the numerous works of the late Ferenc Merei (1909-1986), who is considered to be one of the important figures of contemporary Hungarian psychology. He had significant contributions in the fields of social, developmental and clinical psychology, as well.
Psychologists in Hungary are trained at three universities: the Eotvos Lorand University in Budapest, the Lajos Kossuth University in Debrecen and the Janus Pannonius University in Pecs. They offer a 5-year comprehensive graduate programme. About 500 students are enrolled in the regular program annually. The 5-year programme leads to an MA degree in psychology. Basic training is supplemented by PhD programmes and by postgraduate courses in four applied areas: clinical and mental health, work and organisational psychology, educational psychology and counselling. Three institutions are responsible for the postgraduate training: the Imre Haynal University of Health Sciences, the Technical University of Budapest and the Eotvos Lorand University in Budapest.
Roughly 1,800 people are employed as full-time psychologists. There is a growing interest in psychology as a profession, though the number of students in training is still limited. Due to historical events having a major impact on the development of Hungarian psychology, there is a middle-aged generation in leading roles in the various institutions. However, the number of young psychologists trained according to the state of the art of the profession is growing. This new generation of future professionals has already overcome the language barrier that has been an obstacle in the integration of the region for a long time.
THE CURRENT STATUS OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY IN HUNGARY
I. Clinical and Mental Hygiene Psychology
Clinical psychology has the most deeply rooted traditions within the field of applied psychology in Hungary. The 800 clinical psychologists employed in Hungary are responsible for performing diagnostic, therapeutic and mental hygiene tasks. A diploma of professional clinical and mental hygiene psychology is awarded upon successfully completing the 5-semester postgraduate course offered by the Psychology Department of the Imre Haynal University of Health Sciences. This diploma is the condition of being employed as an independent, unsuper-vised clinical psychologist. At present about 30-35 psychologists receive their clinical and mental hygiene professional psychologist diploma annually and find employment in this field. The professional policy issues of clinical psychology are in the care of the Professional Clinical Psychology Board, which is an advisory body of the Minister for Welfare. The difficulties caused in the field by the change in the economic and political system are decreasing, but due to the modest finances of public health the development of an adequate network of services is still lagging behind.
For historical reasons clinical psychology has close ties to psychiatry. Medical doctors and psychologists developed the profession in a united effort. Professional clinical psychologists and medical doctors jointly participate in the mixed training groups for psychotherapeutic postgraduate training. Altogether 200 clinical psychologists and 200 doctors have received the title of psychotherapist up to this point in time. It is characteristic of Hungary that psychotherapeutic training is organised according to method-specific approaches by the different professional groups. The Psychotherapy Council has accredited the following methods: psychoanalysis; cognitive and behavioural therapy; client-centred psychotherapy; relaxation and symbol therapy; hypnotherapy; analytic psychology; individual psychology; family therapy; psychodrama; group analysis; child psychotherapy. The different schools of psychotherapy have formed societies (e.g. Sandor Ferenczy Society, Psycho-analytically Oriented Training Society, Hungarian Psychodrama Society, Hungarian Group Psychoanalytic Society, etc.) all of which have good working connections with European and international organisations of similar profiles. This way these societies are an integral part of and play a role in the development of this professional field. The Psychotherapy Council is a member of its relevant international organisation, The European Association of Psychotherapy. The practice within the field of psychotherapy in Hungary plays a model role for many Western European countries regarding the system of accreditation and the equivalency between medical doctor and psychologist. The sections dealing with clinical psychology of the new law on health is up to European standards. The "Integrated Psychiatric Services" being currently developed provides an evergrowing professional opportunity for psychology in the field of mental hygiene and primary prevention. The following areas will be major challenges to the profession at the turn of the century: increasing drug abuse; the adverse effects of computer sciences and video; the manipulative effects of mass media; family crises.
2. Health Psychology
Health psychology with its bio-psycho-social viewpoint of life events is still looking for its place within the Hungarian public health system, which is still bio-medical in its approach. There is a professional preparation course within psychology training under the supervision of the Department of Personality and Health Psychology of the Eotvos Lorand University of Budapest. The Department has close working relationship and has a joint research project with the Institute of Behavioural Sciences at the Semmelweis University of Medicine and other, foreign universities (Orebro University Sweden; Tilburg University, Netherlands). The viewpoint of health psychology surfaces mainly in the work of different self-help groups of the chronically ill, and in operation of different health psychology funds and the National Institute for the Protection of Public Health (NEVI) which deals with primary prevention on a national level.
Disturbing statistical data regarding mortality rate and the high-risk indices of middle-aged men make it timely to apply the new, fresh outlook of health psychology on life-events. The number of psychologists participating in mainly government funded interdisciplinary health promotion projects is growing.
One of the most dynamically growing branches within health psychology is psychosomatic medicine in gynaecology and obstetrics, which has given great impetus to the so-called "family-centred child-birth" (including preparation for giving birth, husband's presence at childbirth, the promotion of mother-child relationship and promotion of breast-feeding, etc.). The UNICEF awarded the first "Baby Friendly Hospital" title within Europe to a Hungarian hospital (DOTE Gynaecological Clinic). The WHO Collaborating Centre for Maternal and Child Health and Family Planning operates at this clinic, as well, where 50 professionals participate in English language postgraduate training annually. An important part of this training deals with pressing for a more psychological and psychosomatic viewpoint within the every-day practice of obstetrics and gynaecology. The Hungarian Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology Society was established in 1992 with 200 members, which has 20 psychologists within its ranks. This Society is the only of its kind in Central and Eastern Europe and has ties to its international partner organisation, the International Society of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology - ISPOG. Thus, the Hungarian Society is in a position to create links within the region and foster relations among the neighbouring countries and the more developed part of the world. One of the events underlining this role is the fact that the ISPOG Conference will be held in Hungary in 2002.
3. Work- and Organisational Psychology
The other field of applied psychology, which can boast with long-standing traditions in Hungary is work-psychology, with main traditional applied fields in transport, industry and agriculture. This professional field became institutionalised in the 1970s. By the middle of the 1980s the number of work-psychology and ergonomic laboratories were established within different companies, sector organisational and development institutes enumerated nearly 100. After the change of the economic system and as a result of the gradual establishment of market-economy the professional orientation and institutional structure of this professional field changed dramatically. Alongside the traditional fields of work psychology, a very dynamic development characterises organisational and management/personnel psychology - primarily within privately owned consultation services and firms. The tensions in the labour market which accompany the establishment of the market-economy and the ensuing unemployment served as a basis for new forms of joint functioning of work and counselling psychology and a new institution system. The traditional fields of work psychology are expanding and the rigid boundaries in professional competence between fields seem to be becoming more relaxed and the cooperation among different fields is becoming stronger. A newly emerging field that requires the integration of different psychological competencies is applied psychology at the armed forces (licensing for carrying arms, the selection of personnel, organisational development, mental hygiene, etc.). Another important topic, where significant research capacities are concentrated in borderland fields is the psychological and ergonomic (mainly cognitive-ergonomic) effects of the wide-scale introduction of information technologies and the organisational and organisation psychological problems resulting from this in Hungary. One of the outstanding and internationally recognised professional workshops within the field is the Department of Ergonomics and Psychology at the Technical University of Budapest (BME). The Department has played a central role in the past decade in the development of efficiently functioning, internationally co-operating (Technical University of Delft and Technical University of Berlin) interdisciplinary research and developmental groups. On the basis of these experiences the above Department hosted the 6"' Conference of the European Association of Cognitive Ergonomics - ECCE in 1992. In 1997 the Department organised the "3"' European Graduate Summer School on New Information Technology and Work Psychology" for the young professionals in the field, which served as a postgraduate training, as well as the development of a research network.
Organisation development is the most dynamically developing part of organisational psychology. About one-third of the members of the Hungarian Society of Organisation Development are psychologists (total membership 100-120 persons). These professionals are well versed in handling processes from an individual point of view (career counselling within the work setting, leadership counselling), through group-level (education, training, team-building), up to organisation-level processes (process counselling).
Organisational psychology is the main field that provides a framework for research on decision-making processes, which have an established tradition in Hungary. Professionals participating in the research range from psychologists and economists to engineers and sociologists. International recognition was given to the workshop by the fact, that one of the most highly acclaimed professional forum of decision making psychology (Subjective Probability, Utility and Decision Making - SPUDM) held its conference in Budapest in 1981. Researchers in Hungary did not remain unaffected by practical issues. During the years of change different social problems were scientifically analysed by them. Different courses offered at universities in this field may primarily rely on professional traditions and professional expertise present in Hungary.
The Department of Ergonomics and Psychology of the Technical University of Budapest is in charge of the postgraduate training of work- and organisational psychologists and has endeavoured to meet the changing demands of the past decade with high-standard training. The Psychology Institute of the Lajos Kossuth University of Debrecen is a partner in this postgraduate course, which trains 15-25 professional work and organisational psychologists annually.
The number of psychologists employed in the field of work and organisational psychology is about 300-350 psychologists, half of which have already earned a specialised postgraduate diploma in this field. The tasks regarding business federation and development of the field are provided for by an inter-departmental body, the Hungarian Co-ordination Council for Work Psychology (MLKT), which is the advisory body to the Minister of Labour. This applied field has good international relations to the European Association of Work- and Organisational Psychology - EAWOP and the European Network of Work- and Organisational Psychology - ENOP. Hungary hosted the 7th EAWOP Conference. The Hungarian Society of Organisation Development hosted and organised the 12nd International Conference of the International Organisation Development Association in 1997.
4. School Psychology
School psychology was established at a national level in Hungary ten years ago. There are about 100 school psychologists employed within the public education system. The majority of these have earned a specialising postgraduate diploma in educational psychology at the Department of Social- and Educational Psychology of the Eotvos Lorand University, which is currently in charge of educational psychology postgraduate courses at a national level. This number means that currently the school psychologist/student ratio is 1/11,000, which falls considerably short of the UNESCO recommendation of 1/7,000.
School psychology in Hungary is in a very favourable position in comparison to colleagues' world-wide if the tasks and functions of school psychologists are taken into account. School psychologists in Hungary do not have to face the pressures of selection processes involved in schooling, as most of their colleagues abroad have to, as there are special committees functioning for this purpose. As a consequence much more time can be allotted to primary prevention and consultative services, which are in the forefront of international developmental trends within this applied field.
The demand for school psychologist is dynamically growing. This is fuelled not only by national trends whereby applied psychology is becoming an increasingly important factor, but by the current new legislation concerning public education. The most important are: 1996 - Law on Public Education, which acknowledges the presence of school psychologists in educational institutions and sets the requirements of employment at a postgraduate specialisation level; 1997 - the Law on Child-Welfare; 1998 - Law on the Equal Chances for the Disabled. As a result of the above legislation new national graduate and postgraduate teacher training courses and continuing education courses are being organised, which increase the role of educational and school psychology within the field of education. Poor resources and financing, characteristic of public education, has an unfavourable effect on this applied field and can be said to be one of the main obstacles in furthering the development and services provided in and by this applied field.
A special feature of school psychology in Hungary is related to the long-standing tradition of kindergarten services. Hungary can boast with one of the most well developed kindergarten care system in Europe. It is no surprise therefore, that a number of school psychologists are in fact employed by kindergartens. Their work emphasises early development and primary prevention strategies.
The following themes have come to the forefront of this applied field: early development and its environmental factors, at risk children, screening for learning disabilities, helping and coping strategies, consultation techniques at different levels of intervention, teaching-learning strategies and styles, socio-cognitive approaches, maladaptive behaviour, alternative forms of education. Current developments in legislation have brought organisational psychology and issues pertaining to the integration of children with special needs into the limelight. The School Psychology Methods base that was established at the Department of Social and Educational Psychology, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest has greatly enhanced professional work in this field. It also plays a leading role in training other helping professionals working in educational settings e.g. resource teachers.
Recognising the importance of co-operation among educational psychology and different fields of special education, the profession has taken major steps in dealing with issues requiring an integrated approach. In accordance with international trends, territories like intensive development in case of brain immaturity and/or brain damaged children, diagnosing special needs of children have become areas of co-operation. As a result holistic approaches are emphasised, the diagnostic and conceptual framework is becoming more unified. Still, much remains to be done regarding the systematic development of empirically sound methods, instruments, testing and screening procedures.
The School Psychology Section of the Hungarian Psychological Association and the School Psychology Methods Base jointly play a leading role in the continuing education of school psychologists. The School Psychology Section of the Hungarian Psychological Association and the Hungarian School Psychology Association (HSPA) have active relations with the International School Psychology Association (ISPA). HSPA and ISPA have successfully worked on joint international projects: international survey of school psychology practice and preparation, children's rights and their manifestation, international postgraduate training programme for professionals from ex-Eastern Block countries. Recognising the mediator role of the Hungarian association in the region and the major developments in the applied field the Hungarian School Psychology Association was the co-convenor of the 18"' ISPA Colloquium in 1996 and the re-elected secretary of ISPA is a Hungarian school psychologist.
5. Counselling
Counselling is one of the most dynamically growing fields of applied psychology. There are newer and newer activities and institution systems all requiring well-trained counselling professionals. Apart from the well established vocational and educational guidance services, new emerging trends are: higher-education counselling, labour counselling, family counselling, crises counselling, rehabilitation counselling and the newest is addiction counselling.
The activities previously performed nearly exclusively by psychologists has given impetus to the development of new professions in all the above mentioned spheres. A graduate level counselling profession has developed, which after joint theoretical and methodological basic training, fans out to different specialisations, according to the task. In the labour division within counselling the psychologist plays an important role, but is by no means the only professional. Counselling means a special approach to a problem, where psychological preparation is needed in the resolution of the problem at hand. A medical doctor, a lawyer or a teacher may play a similarly important role in the teamwork. In most of the above-mentioned spheres, counselling professionals do the majority of the work and their numbers are the highest within the field. International developmental trends in counselling are similar to the above, and the development of Hungarian counselling psychology is in accordance with this.
The methodological culture developed in the 1970s has been enriched with many new elements and on the basis of recent international experiences the development or "restructuring" of the vocational guidance system has started in order to adapt to the requirements of the 90s.
The most notable professional workshop of counselling psychology is at the Department of Career Socialisation and Work at the Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest. The Department organised the "Counselling and Unemployment" Conference of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance in 1993 in Budapest, which was a professional event of outstanding importance from the viewpoint of the developing labour-market psychology institutions operating in this region. The postgraduate training of career and work psychologists began in 1994 under the auspices of the above Department of the Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest. An important further opportunity to be taken up in the development of the counselling system is the training and further education of professionals working in the field of work- and career counselling, including those counselling teachers working within the public education system.
6. Sport psychology
The political and economic changes had drastic effects on this field. As a result of social changes the whole institution system and financing structure of the sport-world has changed. Sports - which have traditionally always played an important part in Hungarian culture -, underwent a painful restructuring process, which is drawing to its close at present.
Currently eighteen psychologists are employed in this field of applied psychology. Their main responsibility is to utilise screening procedures and to regularly prepare sportsmen for important events. Although their numbers are small, the work of sport psychologists is now being recognised as an important factor in success more and more by the newly restructured national associations within the different branches of sport. One of the great challenges of the future is to create and regulate the training of sport psychologists.
7. Transport Psychology
There are 30 professional psychologists employed in this applied field at present in Hungary, but in accordance with ever-growing motorization the demand for professionals is increasing, as well. The main fields of activities:
Transport psychologists perform the vocational aptitude testing of about 15,000 professional drivers annually in well equipped laboratories.
Transport/traffic education of about 9000 persons annually within the framework of a rehabilitation programme aimed at repeated offenders and drunken drivers
on the one hand, and at elementary school students, on the other.
Transport psychologists have a well-functioning working relationship with international organisations. The Deputy President of the European Association of Transport Psychologists is a Hungarian psychologist. Hungarian transport psychology plays a model role in Europe regarding the postgraduate training of psychologists within the field.
8. Criminal- and Forensic Psychology
The number of psychologists employed in the field of criminal and forensic psychology varies between 40 and 50 in Hungary. These professionals are mainly employed by penal authorities, by county level police stations and by the capital. As a consequence of increasing crime-rates, especially the number of violent crimes and antisocial behaviour - which can be distinctly observed among youth -, the demand for psychologists within law enforcement, prisons and juvenile homes greatly overrides the number presently employed. A number of psychologists are involved in forensic psychology, but the professional preparation of psychologists in this field is problem to be resolved. Although criminal psychology as a course, is offered as a part of professional training at graduate level at universities and colleges, but specialised training has not yet been established in this field.
9. Political Psychology
Although this applied field of psychology is not well developed, but as a result of recent economic, social and political transformations a growing social demand can be observed for its development. Graduate level training is offered in this field by the Sociology and Social Political Institute and the Department of Social- and Educational Psychology at Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), Budapest. It is also offered in courses at undergraduate and at postgraduate levels, as well as in a PhD programme. The joint Department Research Group of Communication Sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Eotvos Lorand University is functioning as a part of the above mentioned Department of ELTE. This Research group has the longest standing tradition in the field of public thinking and opinion polling in Hungary. This research group not only conducts research projects, but also plays an important role in the training of political psychologists, as well.
10. Economic Psychology
Research employing an interdisciplinary viewpoint of economy and psychology has come to the forefront only in the past few years in accordance with the gradual development of market economy in Hungary. In recent years, consumer behaviour, advertisement psychology, marketing and public relations have all become important fields in applied psychology and is one of the major spheres of employment of psychologists. The main professional workshops of interdisciplinary economic psychology in Hungary are at the University of Economics, Budapest and the Technical University of Budapest, at the Attila Jozsef University at Szeged and at the Lajos Kossuth University at Debrecen. Courses of this kind are offered at the Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest and at the Technical University of Budapest as a part of undergraduate psychology training, as well as a part of post-graduate training courses.
11. Environmental psychology
Environmental psychology is gaining ground in Hungary. Research in this field is only conducted at the Department for Experimental Psychology at Eotvos Lorand University at the present, although environmental sciences dealing with similar topics, such as ergonomics, environmental economy, security sciences, urban studies, etc., have a long-standing tradition in Hungary. This field of applied psychology - the same as all other interdisciplinary fields which have close ties to the applied sphere - will become a dynamically developing applied psychological science in the next decade, which according to political intentions, will be the decade of joining forces with the developed Western world.
12. Other fields
Cultural comparative psychology research: The situation of non-Hungarians nationals and foreigners in Hungary - the psychology of relating to the original and the accommodating (Hungarian) culture.
Psychological research regarding gender issues: psychological research regarding gender role, gender-stereotyping and related issues.
The psychology of ageing: Research in gerontology and psychological research on ageing.
Mathematical modelling in psychology.
Computer-aided psycho-diagnostics.
Psychodrama - play-back.
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